Introduction: Ascaris lumbricoides belongs to class Phasmida of Phylum Aschelminthes or Nemathelminthes. It is commonly called a roundworm, attributed to its worm-like morphology. Because A. lumbricoides eggs can withstand a variety of environmental circumstances, a large number of eggs are generated per female worm, and inadequate sanitary conditions are common, particularly in developing and undeveloped […]

Introduction to Protein Secretion in Bacteria: Like all other organisms, bacteria have all the necessary cell structures that ensure their survival and proper functioning. The protective cell envelope can be two or three membranes, depending on the nature of the bacteria. Bacteria are protected from the environment by one or two membranes that prevent the

Introduction to Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO): Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) is a temperature above 38.3 degrees Celsius, lasting more than 3 weeks, and there is failure to reach a diagnosis despite a week of inpatient investigation.  PUO could be classic PUO (temperature >38.3 degrees Celsius for more than 3 weeks and evaluation of

Introduction to Biosecurity and Biosafety: Biosecurity is the prevention of misuse, loss, theft and unauthorized access, and intentional release of harmful agents like pathogens, their toxins, and the equipment involved in doing so. The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention was formed in 1975 to address the bad use of bioweapons. The biosecurity functions are at

Introduction and overview of bacterial invasion: Living inside host cells helps bacterial pathogens to exploit the intracellular niche and nutrient-rich environment. Many pathogenic bacteria employ phagocytosis to enter the host cell. After entering the cells, these bacteria block phagolysosome formation, preventing lysis of the self. This conceals the bacteria from host defense. To infiltrate the

Introduction to Hypersensitivity Reactions: When an individual has been immunologically primed, further contact with the antigen leads to a secondary immune response, boosting. However, if the antigen is present in relatively large amounts or if the humoral and cellular immune state is at a heightened level, the reaction may be excessive and may lead to

Introduction: Tapeworms (Taenia solium and Taenia saginata) belong to the class Cestoda of phylum Platyhelminthes. Tapeworms are flat, parasitic animals with complex life cycles that infect animals, including humans. They are exclusively endoparasites. Comparison and contrast of Taenia solium and Taenia saginata in terms of morphology: Differences between Taenia solium and Taenia saginata: Differences in

Introduction: Some of the most powerful approaches to determine the taxonomy and phylogeny of the organisms is through the study of nucleic acids and proteins, since they are genes themselves or direct gene products that provide considerable information about the true relatedness. Phylogenetic inferences based on molecular tools characterization provide the strongest and most reliable