Introduction to Cell Substrates in Vaccine Production: Cell substrates have been a never-ending source of concern about the potential for transmitting infectious diseases and/or cancer. The initial key decision in selecting cell substrates for vaccine production was to minimize the risk of cancer transmission through live viral vaccines. This led to the restriction of acceptable

Introduction to Immunodeficiency: Life Cycle of HIV: HIV infection is usually transmitted vertically from an infected mother to the baby via the placenta or by breastfeeding. Horizontally, HIV can be transmitted through activities like non-screened blood transplantation, use of infected needle sticks, needle stick injury, and unsafe sexual contact.  So, the virus can be transmitted

Introduction: Ascaris lumbricoides belongs to class Phasmida of Phylum Aschelminthes or Nemathelminthes. It is commonly called a roundworm, attributed to its worm-like morphology. Because A. lumbricoides eggs can withstand a variety of environmental circumstances, a large number of eggs are generated per female worm, and inadequate sanitary conditions are common, particularly in developing and undeveloped

Introduction to Protein Secretion in Bacteria: Like all other organisms, bacteria have all the necessary cell structures that ensure their survival and proper functioning. The protective cell envelope can be two or three membranes, depending on the nature of the bacteria. Bacteria are protected from the environment by one or two membranes that prevent the

Introduction to Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO): Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) is a temperature above 38.3 degrees Celsius, lasting more than 3 weeks, and there is failure to reach a diagnosis despite a week of inpatient investigation.  PUO could be classic PUO (temperature >38.3 degrees Celsius for more than 3 weeks and evaluation of

Introduction to Biosecurity and Biosafety: Biosecurity is the prevention of misuse, loss, theft and unauthorized access, and intentional release of harmful agents like pathogens, their toxins, and the equipment involved in doing so. The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention was formed in 1975 to address the bad use of bioweapons. The biosecurity functions are at

Introduction and overview of bacterial invasion: Living inside host cells helps bacterial pathogens to exploit the intracellular niche and nutrient-rich environment. Many pathogenic bacteria employ phagocytosis to enter the host cell. After entering the cells, these bacteria block phagolysosome formation, preventing lysis of the self. This conceals the bacteria from host defense. To infiltrate the

Introduction to Hypersensitivity Reactions: When an individual has been immunologically primed, further contact with the antigen leads to a secondary immune response, boosting. However, if the antigen is present in relatively large amounts or if the humoral and cellular immune state is at a heightened level, the reaction may be excessive and may lead to